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Behaviourism
An approach in psychology which attempts to explain all Behaviour in terms of learning. This reductionist approach largely focuses on overt Behaviour and ignores internal mechanisms such as cognitions (e.g. thoughts).
Behaviourism had a profound influence on the course of psychology during the first half of the twentieth century. The Behaviourist Approach chooses not to be concerned with the internal mechanisms which occur inside the organism. Rather, behaviourists believed that human beings are shaped through constant interactions with the environment. That is according to Behaviourism learning and experience determines the kind of person you become.
The Behaviourist Approach is rooted in the work of associationists, Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike, and the early behaviourists, John Watson and Clark Hull, all of whom studied learning in the form of conditioning. Pavlov studied the Conditioning of Reflex responses, or classical conditioning, whilst Thorndike's work focused on the Conditioning of voluntary behaviour, now referred to as operant conditioning, and later researched by B.F. Skinner.
B.F. Skinner’s work on Operant conditioning is still very influential today. Skinner experimented with rats and later with pigeons. For instance, he conditioned rats to press a bar in a 'Skinner box' in return for a reward of food and even taught pigeons to play ping pong. He was able to measure learning accurately under closely controlled conditions and though he started his research with animals, Skinner worked towards a theory of Conditioning which included humans.
The influence of the behaviourist approach, with its emphasis on the manipulation of Behaviour through patterns of Reinforcement and punishment, is evident in many practical situations.
Therapeutic techniques based on Conditioning processes are usually referred to as either behavioural therapy. Techniques based on Operant conditioning are usually referred to as Behaviour modification and techniques which rely upon the principles of Classical Conditioning are usually known as Behaviour therapy.
Behaviour modification is a technique which is used to change or remove unwanted behaviour. Its main assumption is that Behaviour which has favourable consequences, that is, which is positively reinforced, is likely to be repeated and Behaviour which is ignored is likely to die out. The desired Behaviour is broken down into a sequence of small steps. Each step achieved is immediately rewarded, but gradually more and more of the required Behaviour is demanded before the reward is given. This process is known as Behaviour Shaping through successive approximations.
Token economy systems are based on the principle of secondary reinforcement. Tokens are given in exchange for desirable or acceptable behaviours. These can then be exchanged for primary (or direct) reinforcements, such as sweets or extra outings. There is evidence that well-organised token economy systems do promote desirable behaviour, particularly in institutional settings such as hospitals as schools. However doubts have been raised regarding the long term effectiveness of such programmes and about whether the effects are due to Reinforcement or to other variables.
Behaviour Therapy is a term usually applied to techniques based on Classical Conditioning which deal with involuntary or Reflex behaviour. It Aims to remove maladaptive behaviours and substitute desirable ones. One example of such a technique is systematic desensitisation, which has been used to remove phobias. For example, an individual who had an irrational fear of spiders would first be taught how to relax. Gradually the feared object would be introduced to the patient in a step-by-step process until the patient could tolerate actual contact with the spider without anxiety.
The Behaviourist Approach has had a major influence in psychology and has contributed to our understanding of psychological functioning and has provided a number of techniques for changing unwanted behaviour. It is also argued that its use of rigorous Empirical methods has enhanced the credibility of psychology as a science.
However behaviourisms reductionist approach tends to overlook the realm of consciousness and subjective experiences and it does not address the possible role of biological factors in human behaviour. Individuals are seen as passive beings that are at the mercy of their environments. This emphasis on environmental Determinism leaves no room for the notion of free will in an individual. Furthermore the theories of classical and Operant conditioning cannot account for the production of spontaneous, novel or creative Behaviour and Behavioural Therapy has been criticised for treating the probable symptoms of mental disorders whilst often ignoring possible underlying causes.
